Appendix 1

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Barnes, James. Gabon Beyond the Colonial Legacy , Boulder, 1992.
Becker, Charles M., Hamer, H., and Morrisson, Andrew R. Beyond Urban Bias: African Urbanisation in an Era of Structural Adjustment, Heinemann, 1994.
Bongo, El Hadj Omar, Le Gabon, Libreville, 1984.
Bonte, Pierre et Izard, Michel, Dictionnaire de l'ethnologie et de l'anthropologie , Paris, 1991.
Cassagne, B. Enquête sur la Consommation de Combustible Ligneux dans l'Agglomération de Bangui (R.C.A.), 1981.
Conroy, C., and Litvinoff, M. The Greening of Aid , London, 1988.
Davidson, Basil. The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State , New York, 1992.
Denslow, J., and Padoch, C. (eds.). People of the Tropical Rain Forest , Berkeley, 1988.
Duley, Margot I. and Edwards, Mary I. (eds.), The Cross-Cultural Study of Women , New York, 1986.
Fournier, F., and Sasson, A. Ecosystèmes forestiers tropicaux d'Afrique , Paris, 1983.
Franqueville, André. Yaoundé : Construire une Capitale , Paris, 1984.
Ghai, Dharam, and Vivian, Jessica. (eds.), Grassroots Environment Action: People's Participation in Sustainable Development , London, 1992.
Harmattan. Nourrir les Villes en Afrique Sub-Saharienne , Paris 1985.
Hardoy, Jorge E., Mitlan, Diana, and Satterthwaite, David. The Environmental Problems in The Third World , London, 1992.
Harms, Robert. Games Against Nature: An Eco-Cultural History of the Nunu of Equatorial Africa , Cambridge, 1987.
Hladik, C. M., Hladik, A., Linares, O.F., Pagezy, H., Semple, A., and Hadley, M. Tropical Forest, People and Food, Biocultural Interactions and Applications to Development , Volume 13, Paris, 1993.
Laburthe-Tolra, Philippe. Les Seigneurs de la Forêt , Paris, 1981.
Leimdorfer, François, et Vidal, Laurent. Les Thèses Françaises sur les villes des pays en développement (1980-1990) , Paris, 1992.
MacGaffy, Janet. The Real Economy of Zaire , London and Philadelphia, 1991.
Pratt, Brian., Boyden, Jo. (eds), The Field Directors' Handbook , Oxford, 1985.
Pearce, David., Barbier, Edward, and Markandya, Anil. Sustainable Developement: Economics and Environment in the Third World , London, 1990.
Rotberg, Robert, and Mazrui, Ali. (eds.), Protest and Power in Black Africa , Oxford, 1970.
Sayer, Jeffrey, et. al ., (eds.), Africa: the Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests , U.K., 1992.
Schatzberg, Michael. The Dialectics of Oppression in Zaire , Bloomington, 1988.
Vennetier, Pierre. Les Villes d'Afrique Tropicale , Paris, 1976.
World Resouces Institute, et. al. , The 1993 Directory of Country Environmental Studies , New York, 1992.

PERIODICALS

Amena, Lubana Ngiyene. "l'Organisation de la Société Paysanne et la Situation du Mouvement Cooperatif dans le Bas-Zaire, in Les Cahiers du CEDAF , vol. 3-4, Bruxelles, 1990.
Bahuchet, Serge. "L'invention des Pygmées" in Cahier d'Etudes Africaines , 129, XXXIII-1, Paris, 1993.
Blang, R. "Saison Cynégétique 93/94: La Chasse Sportive est Ouverte." in L'action , Yaoundé, 1994.
Colchester, Marcus, and Lohmann, Larry. "The Tropical Forestry Action Plan: What Progress?". The Ecologist .
European Union. Le Courrier ACP-CE ; Janvier-Février, 1986.
Frenay, Patrick, "le Réseau Urbain Camerounais: Caractéristiques Principales, Dynamique Actuelle, Alternatives Futures" in Revue Belge de Géographie , Fas: 3-4, 1987.
Gigi. "Comment obtient-on un permis de chasse au Cameroun?" in Contact Magazine , 1994.
Joiris, Daou V. "Protection de la forêt et Dévelopement", in Vivant Univers , n° 396, Namur, 1991.
Lugo, Ariel. "Cities in the sustainable development of tropical landscapes" in Nature & Resources , UNESCO, vol. 27, N°. 2. Paris, 1991.
Mamba Ziwa Mpasi, "Quelques facteurs qui amplifient le déboisement dans l'auréole d'influence de Kinshasa". La Géographie Humaines , ULB, N°1 Janvier-Juin 1992.
Notes de Conjoncture , Kinshasa, Février, 1994.
Organization of African Unity, Nouvelles de l'O.U.A ., Bruxelles, Mars-Avril 1990.

REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS

American Embassy Libreville, Foreign Economic Trends and Their Implications for the United Stated , Gabon, 1993.
Atem, H. Urban Residents and their Environment, a Study of Environmental Perceptions , Yaoundé, 1985.
Aubé, Jean. Cameroon Foresty Sector Overview , Cameroon, 1993.
Bahuchet, Serge, and de Maret, Pierre, (eds). Situation des Populations Indigènes des Forêts Denses Humides, UE, DG XI, Bruxelles, June, 1993.
Bailey, Robert. Bahuchet, Serge, and Hewlett, Barry. Development in Central African Rain Forest: Concerns for Forest Peoples , September, 1990.
Befame-Nseme, Joseph, et. al., La Représentation Mentale de la Forêt par les Citadins du Gabon , unpublished, Libreville, 1994.
Centre de Coopération Cameroun Canada, L'environement au Cameroun: Perception de l'environement au Cameroun , 1991.
Colchester, Marcus. "Slave and Enclave", Never Drink from the Same Cup: Proceedings of the Conference on Indigenous Peoples in Africa , Tune, Denmark, 1993.
De Boeck, F. On Trees and Kings: Politics and Metaphor Among the Aluund of South-Western Zaire , unpublished, n. p., n. d.
Dongmo, J. L. L'Approvisionnement Alimentaire de Yaoundé , Yaoundé, 1990.
Doumenge, Charles. La Conservation des Eco-Systèmes Forestiers du Zaire , Gland, 1990.
European Union, Annual Report for Gabon , 1992.
F.A.O., Plan d'Action Forestier Tropical: Mission Conjointe Interagence et de Revue pour le Secteur Forestier: Cameroun , Rome, 1988.
Globe International, Proposition de convention-type en vue de la conservation et de l'utilisation rationelle des forêts , Bruxelles, 1992.
Harza Engineering Company. Zaire; Country Environmental Profile , Washington D.C.,1980.
Hladik, C. M., Bahuchet, Serge, and de Garine, I. (eds), Food and Nutrition in the African Rain Forest , Paris, 1990.
Indjieley, Marius. et. al., La Consommation de la Viande de Brousse à Libreville , unpublished, Libreville, 1994.
International Resources Group, Ltd. West and Central Regional Environmental Law Study , Washington, D.C.1992.
Kamandji Lossi, Guy-Marin. Impact des pyroguiers et cyclistes dans l'approvisionnement de la ville de Kisangani ; working title, unpublished, n.p., n.d.
Lapika, Dimomfu, et. al., Enquête sur l'Arboriculture dans la Zone de Lemba à Kinshasa , unpublished, Kinshasa,1994.
Lapika, Dimonfu, Kika Mavunda, et. al., Enquête sur la Consommation de la Viande de Singe à Kinshasa , unpublished, Kinshasa,1994.
Macshane, T.O., and Macshane-Caluzi, E. Conservation Before the Crisis: A Study for Conservation in Gabon , Libreville, 1990.
Ministère de la Coopération, Les Etats d'Afrique, de l'Océan Indien et des Caraïbes , Paris, 1993.
Mbukulirahi, Malekani. Quelques aspets de l'utilisation de la faune au Zaïre , unpublished, 1991.
Ndobegang, Michael. Yaoundé City Dwellers and Their Perceptions of the Forest , unpublished, Yaoundé, 1994.
Nwel, T. Introduction à une Pédagogie d'Education en Environement au Cameroun , Yaoundé, 1983.
Papa, Christina. Noi Siamo Come Un Albero.. ., Rome, 1993.
Republic of Cameroon, Environment and Sustainable Development for Cameroon, Yaoundé, 1992.
République du Cameroun, Loi n° 94/01 du 20 Janvier 1994.
République du Cameroun, VIème Plan Quinquenal de Développement Economique Social et Culturel, 1986-1991, Yaoundé, 1986.
République Gabonaise, Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat, July, 1993.
Sebalinda, Gaspard. "The Relationship between the Batwa and the State of Rwanda", in Never Drink from the Same Cup , Tune, Denmark, 1993.
The Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Profile; Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, London, 1992.
Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources, Plan d'action régional pour l'Afrique Centrale, Bruxelles, 1988.
United Nations, Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development . (Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June, 1992).
Urban, Atem. Residents and their Environment a Study of Environmental Perceptions , Yaoundé, 1985.
Wilkie, David. Human Settlement and Forest Composition Within the Proposed Okapi Rain Forest Reserve in Northeastern Zaire , unpublished, n. p. 1989.
Wilks, Chris. La Conservation des Eco-Systèmes Forestiers du Gabon , Gland, 1990.
World Bank publication in cooperation with the World Conservation Union, Conservation of West and Central African Rainforests, 1992.

THESES

Debroux, Laurent, and Dethier, Marc. Valorisation des Produits Secondaires de la Forêt Dense Humide Tropicale, unpublished Masters thesis, Gembloux, 1993.
Pain, Marc. Ecologie et Organisation Urbaines , Doctoral thesis defended at Université de Toulouse, Le Mirail, 1979.
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Professor Pierre de Maret
Dr Theodore Trefon
Miss Daou V. Joiris, Research Associate
Miss Françoise Goldschmidt

CAMEROON
Dr Michael Ndobegang, Université de Yaoundé
Mr Athanase Bopda, Institut National de Cartographie

GABON
Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines,
Université Omar Bongo

Professor Joseph Befame-Nseme
Professor Marius Indjiely
Mr Mboumba Moulambou
Mr Alain Elloue Engoune
Mrs Jeanne Mboumba Moulambou
Mr Albert Pyssame
Mr Nziengui-Nziengui
Mr Martin Langa
Mr Essone Atome
Mrs Colette Mercier

ZAIRE
UNIKIN

Professor Lapika Dimomfu
Professor Kika Mavunda
Mr Matula Atul
Mr Kidiba Langa
Mr Kikulu N'yanga-Nzo
Mr Senda
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by Université Libre de Bruxelles, Centre of Cultural Anthropology

contract No° B-8110-93-000284

Report prepared by Theodore Trefon, Ph.D.

Under the direction of Professor Pierre de Maret

Since October 1993 researchers from the Centre of Cultural Anthropology at ULB have been actively pursuing the twofold study of (1) how forest resources are used by central African city dwellers and (2) how the forest, its peoples, products and symbolism are perceived by these populations. Our study is country comparative and inter-disciplinary in focus.

The project's first phase involved:

1. Sharpening the hypotheses delineated in the initial proposal (préparation d'une enquête systématique). These hypotheses are:

-The future of the forest lies to a very large extent in the hands of city dwellers. This applies to the elite because political decision-makers, representatives of multinationals or foreign companies, local businessmen, among others, determine through legislation, political accommodation and commercial criteria, the ways in which forest resources are exploited.
It also applies to the masses: millions of people in the swelling cities of central Africa use and rely on, discover and re-discover forest resources to help cope with the exigencies of daily survival which is exacerbated by the current economic crisis.

-In times of economic hardship, urban populations exert increasing pressure on forest resources. Deforestation takes place to provide fuel wood and for the establishment of plantations. Likewise, urban unemployed take to commercial hunting as a means of earning a livelihood. This dramatically reduces wildlife communities.

-Forest conservation or management must take a wide array of social science factors into account to be realistic. The world economy, demographic questions, urbanisation, ethnicity, the psychological lure of the city, etc. are among the subjects which influence the ways and degree forest resources are exploited.

-Deforestation and resource depletion by city dwellers goes far beyond the commonly stated reasons of 'poverty and ignorance': cultural and traditional attachment to forest products is deep-rooted and enduring. This depends on the product. In Kinshasa charcoal is widely used for cooking because there are no alternatives whereas in Libreville for example use of electricity and gas is common. In Libreville, however, bush meat is consumed not for economic reasons but because of culture and taste.

-The forest is perceived by city dwellers in a multiplicity of ways which is not very clear. Some consider the forest to be a vast reservoir of resources to be consumed and not managed; others are apprehensive, given real and imagined dangers; others feel a deep spiritual attachment to it. The vast majority of city dwellers are indifferent to the forest as defined and defended by Europeans.

- Political authorities are concerned primarily with their own political survival and addressing short-term economic problems. As forest conservation is a long-term enterprise, there is a divergence of interests.

2. Collecting and analysing relevant documentation available in Brussels. Services at the DG VIII, ULB and the CEDAF have supplied some studies and reference materials but very few works deal explicitly with the forest-city interface. The clear paucity of published material on this subject testifies to its originality and to the timeliness of creating a relevant data bank.

3. Identifying and contacting individuals from academia, civil services and NGOs (in Europe and central Africa) interested in the project's focus.

A second phase entailed a fact finding mission to central Africa. Between 22 February 1994 and 29 March 1994, research was carried out in Yaoundé, Cameroon; Kinshasa, Zaire and Libreville, Gabon.

Specific activities upon arrival in these cities included (1) observation, (2) interviews and discussions, (3) bibliographical research and (4) orchestrating and partially financing pilot studies undertaken by local academics who will be integrated into a network of researchers focusing on the forest-city interface.

Observation

- the principal venues where specific forest products are exchanged (central markets, roadside markets, ports, etc.).

- those forest products most widely consumed in urban centres. We focused our attention on both bush meat consumption which is responsible for the varying but significant disappearance of wildlife and also on wood products (principally fuel wood but also wood for construction). This choice was influenced by the assumption that urban populations have been directly responsible for the depletion of these resources in the areas surrounding their cities and they are now extending deforestation and hunting activities far into the intermediary zones between city and rural areas. Other forest products such as medicinal plants, tree bark, forest fruits, skins, insects, trophies etc., were identified but we chose not to devote research time and resources to their study because use of these products does not seriously threaten the forest environment - at least in the immediate future.

- the social actors participating in the chain of exchange (farmers, fishing communities, hunters, transporters, market vendors, buyers, consumers, etc.).

- the relationship between trade and transportation networks (road, railroad and river) and the frequency at which trucks, pick-ups, barges and trains) enter urban areas.

- who consumes forest products (social class, ethnicity, length of time spent in cities), for what reasons (traditional attachment, cost, availability), in what contexts (daily habits, special occasions, ritual).

- how the confrontation between "modernity" and "tradition" influences recourse to, or the abandoning of, the use of forest products.

Interviews

Documentation and bibliographical research

Along these same lines, local researchers- especially in Zaire and to a lesser extent in Cameroon - are forced to work under difficult infrastructural conditions. While individuals seemed keenly interested by social scientific aspects of forest conservation and the city-forest interface, they admitted that their own research initiatives remain foiled by budgetary restraints.

Organising pilot studies undertaken by a network of local researchers

In Yaoundé one pilot study focuses on aspects of the bush meat trade at the Efoundi market. This includes identifying species, evaluating volume, establishing costs, identifying buyers and consumers. The social scientific aspects of demand for bush meat are emphasised. Research co-ordinator: Mr. Anthanase Bopda, Institut Nationale de Cartographie.

The second Yaoundé study is being carried out by Professor Michael Ndobegang (Ecole Normale Superieure) who is using his students as a sample group. He is investigating how these students perceive the forest and its resources, what the forest symbolises to them, how they perceive conservation issues, etc.

In Kinshasa, Unikin General Secretary for Academic Affairs, Lapika Dimomfu is supervising a study on the consumption of smoked monkey - by far the type of bush meat most widely available in the Zairian capital. Smoked monkey was selected as a research topic because other kinds of bush meat are scarce in Kinshasa and are consequently less relevant in a social economic context. Kinshasa's 5 million inhabitants have put such tremendous pressure on wildlife that game has been depleted in a radius of hundreds of kilometres around the city. Whatever fresh bush meat is found in Kinshasa is reserved for elite Zairians or expatriates. Most of the bush meat available in Kinshasa emanates from the distant forest in the Equateur Province. Questions raised in this study include volume, entry points, distribution network, modes of payment, consumption taboos, etc.

The second study attempts to ascertain how city dwellers reconstitute the forest environment around their homes. Research findings here will be helpful in establishing the scope and intensity of urban dwellers' anthropological attachment to the forest milieu.

In Libreville participants are associated with Omar Bongo University's Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines (IRSH). Other organisms have commenced studying some aspects of bush meat consumption in Libreville ( e. g. the World Wildlife Fund and ECOFAC) driven by the large amounts of such meat clearly visible in the local markets. It is estimated that four tons of bush meat enter Libreville monthly. These organisms, however, are focusing on ways of diminishing hunting and trapping without taking into account social science aspects of consumption. Our pilot study will consequently try to ascertain the degree of cultural attachment to bush meat by analysing related consumer attitudes and behaviours.

With respect to the perception Librevillois have of the forest and its resources, researchers at IRSH are developing a country specific questionnaire. Points included address the sustainability of the forest; the forest as a friendly or hostile environment; attitudes concerning poaching; visits to family living in the forest; how the disappearance of the Mondah forest is felt; etc.

Contract completion and follow-up

CAMEROON

Dr. Jacques Bonvallot
ORSTOM

Dr.Steve Gartland
World Wildlife Fund

Athanase Bopda
Institut National de Cartographie

Dr. Michael Ndobegang
Ecole Normale Superieure

Felicité Tankoua
Service d'Appui aux Iniatives Locale de Développement

Alzadia Washington
USAID

John Macmahon
USAID

Dr. Emmanuel Achu Gwan
Chairman
Department of Geography
Yaoundé University

Professor Ngwa Nebasina
Department of Geography
Yaoundé University

Dr. Jacob Ngeve
IRA Nkolbisson

Augustin Youmbi
Enviro Project

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ZAIRE

Professor Mumpasi Lututala
Unikin

Professor Lapika Dimomfu
Secrétaire Général Academique
Unikin

Professor Kika
Unikin

Wayne King
USAID

Christian Beninger
Cultural Attaché, Ambassade de France

Philippe Nayer
Délégué de la Communauté française de Belgique

Peter Van de Velde
Ambassade du Royaume de Belgique

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GABON

Lisa Steel
WWF

Serge Akagah
Les Amis du Pangolin

Professor Marius Indjieley
Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines
Omar Bongo University

Professor Joseph Befame-Nseme
Director, IRSH
Omar Bongo University

Professor Mouity Nzamba
Director Cenarest
Omar Bongo University

Rosalie Ngoua
Curator
Musée de la Forêt

Michel Fernandez-Puente
ECOFAC, EEC

Mr Sapor
Mission de la Coopération Française

Gilles Rebattet
Delegate
European Commission