Footnotes for trefon

1.  The Service d'Appui aux Initiatives Locales de Developpement is working along these lines in Yaoundé.
2.  The 1993 Directory of Country Environmental Studies , New York, 1992, for example, provides bibliographic data on 354 "natural resource and environmental studies" (p. 1). Reference to social scientific aspects of the environment, however, is absent.
3.  An excellent analysis of this problem is developed in West and Central Regional Environmental Law Study. Report prepared for USAID by International Resources Group, Ltd. Washington, D.C. 1992.
4.   Moreover, if democratisation is to take root in central Africa, the needs of forest peoples will have to be addressed by virtue of their potential electoral importance. In Cameroon, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic and Zaire, estimates put the combined population of indigenous forest peoples to be 24,302,600 out of a 59,389,611 total. See Daou V. Joiris in Serge Bahuchet and Pierre de Maret, (eds.), Situation des Populations Indigènes des Forêts Denses Humides, UE, DG XI, Bruxelles, June 1993, p. 392.
5.  Organization of African Unity, Nouvelles de l'O.U.A. , Bruxelles, Mars-Avril, 1990, p. 40.
6.  The ways in which international aid can be ecologically beneficial has been developed in C. Conroy and M. Litvinoff, The Greening of Aid , London, 1988.
7.  F. Fournier and A. Sasson, Ecosystèmes forestiers tropicaux d'Afrique , Paris, 1983, p. 297. Author's translation.
8.  J. Denslow and C. Padoch, (eds.), People of the Tropical Rain Forest , Berkeley, 1988.
9.  Union Internationale pour la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources, Plan d'Action Regional pour l'Afrique Centrale , 1988 p. 4. This programme was funded by the European Development Fund (VI FED).
10.  Globe International, Proposition de convention-type en vue de la conservation et de l'utilisation rationelle des forêts , Bruxelles, 1992, article ten, p. 38.
11.  Serge Bahuchet and Pierre de Maret, (eds.), op.cit.
12.  A concise bibliograpgy on the suject of forest peoples in Africa (Pygmies most notably) and the environment appears in, Robert Bailey, Serge Bahuchet and Barry Hewlett, Development in Central African Rain Forest: Concerns for Forest Peoples . Report for The World Bank, Environment Department, September 1990.
13.  Draft of forthcoming World Bank publication in cooperation with the World Conservation Union. Conservation of West and Central African Rainforests , selected papers from the conference, 1992. Quotation from foreword.* "Sustainable development" has become a well-documented leit motif inspiring a number of important works. See for example: Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living , WWF, UNEP, IUCN, London, 1991. This work is a follow-up of the 1980 World Conservation Strategy (same authors) which coined the term "sustainable development". Also, David Pearce, Edward Barbier and Anil Markandya, Sustainable Development: Economics and Environment in the Third World, London 1990; and Dharam Ghai and Jessica Vivian (eds.), Grassroots Environmental Action: People's Participation in Sustainable Development , London, 1992.
14.  Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992), chapter 26, paragraph 26.1.
15.  Ariel Lugo, "Cities in the sustainable development of tropical landscapes" in, Nature & Resources , vol. 27, n°. 2, UNESCO, Paris, 1991, p. 28.
16.  Lubana Ngiyene Amena, "l'Organisation de la Société Paysanne et la Situation du Mouvement Cooperatif dans le Bas-Zaire, in Les Cahiers du CEDAF , vol. 3-4, Brussels, 1990. See most notably, chapter 4, "l'Interface entre les Associations Rurales à Fonctions Multiples et les Associations Urbaines de Consommation".
17.  Jorge E. Hardoy, Diana Mitlan and David Satterthwaite, The Environmental Problems in the Third World , London, 1992.
18.  Jeffrey Sayer et. al. , (eds.) Africa: The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests , U.K., 1992, p. 86.
19.  ECOFAC participating member countries are: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Zaire (activities suspended in Zaire for political and organisational reasons).
20.  For recent work done on urbanisation and Third World cities, see, François Leimdorfer et Laurent Vidal, Les thèses françaises sur les villes des pays en développement (1980-1990) , Paris, 1992.
21.  Patrick Frenay, "Le Réseau Urbain Camerounais: Caractéristiques Princpales, Dynamique Actuelle, Alternatives Futures" in Revue Belge de Géographie , fas; 3-4, 1987. Frenay used the expression: Yaoundé "a 'fait le vide' autour d'elle". P. 124.
22.  For a remarkably exhaustive study of the urban dynamics of Kinshasa, see: Marc Pain, Écologie et Organisation Urbaines , doctoral thesis defended at Université de Toulouse, Le Mirail, 1979.
23.  République Gabonaise, Recensement General de la Population et de l'Habitat, July 1993, p. 3.
24.  Sayer, op.cit ., p. 111, 168, 272.
25.  For the various reasons explaining the influx of forest and other rural peoples into urban areas see: Pierre Vennetier, Les Villes d'Afrique Tropicale , chapter 10, "La ville et l'arrière-pays", Paris, 1976.
    For a more recent analysis of African urban development and urban relations with the hinterland, see: Charles M. Becker, Andrew M. Hamer and Andrew R. Morrison, Beyond Urban Bias: African Urbanisation in an Era of Structural Adjustment , Heinemann, 1994.
26.  Igor de Garine, Stephen Hugh-Jones and Armin Prinz, "Cultural Factors in Food Choices - Background" in C.M. Hladik et. al. , (eds.) Tropical Forests, People and Food: Biocultural Interactions and Applications to Development , UNESCO, Paris, 1993, p. 530.
27.  Zaire; Country Environmental Profile , Harza Engineering Company for USAID, Washington, D.C., 1980, p. II-9.
28.  La Conservation des Eco-Systèmes forestiers du Zaire , Charles Doumenge, Gland, 1990, p. 51.
29.  The problems relating to deforestation around Kinshasa have been analysed in Mpasi Ziwa Mamba, "Quelques facteurs qui amplifient le déboisement dans l'auréole d'influence de Kinshasa", La Géographie Humaines , ULB, n° 1 Janvier-Juin 1992.
30.  Le Courrier ACP-CE , European Union, Janvier-Fevrier 1986, p. 71-76.
31.  The Economist Intelligence Unit, The Economist Intelligence Report, 1992-1993 : Country Profile: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad , London, 1992, p. 23-24.
32.  Marc Lallemant and Jacques Senechal, "Malnutrition, Santé et Approvisionnement Vivrier à Brazzaville" in Nourrir les Villes en Afrique Sub-Saharienne ; Harmattan, 1985, p. 206.
33.  A. Devos quoted in Human Settlement and Forest Composition Within the Proposed Okapi Rain Forest Reserve in Northeastern Zaire, David Wilkie, 1989, unpublished, p. 64.
34.  For the commercial role of women see, F. Morrow, "Women in Sub-Saharan Africa", in Margot I. Duley and Mary I. Edwards (eds.), The Cross-Cultural Study of Women , New York, 1986.
35.  Socio-economic research on bush meat has been published by François Feer, "The Potential for Sustainable Hunting and Rearing of Game in Tropical Forests" in C. M. Hladik et. al., (eds.), 1993.
36.  There is an unfortunate paradox here because development objectives are not necessarily harmonious with environmental protection. Roads are of course crucial to economic development but they also facilitate the commercialisation of game and wood.
37.  Daou V. Joiris, "Protection de la Forêt et Développement", in Vivant Univers , n° 396, 1991, p. 19. Author's translation.
38.  European Union, Annual Report for Gabon, 1992, p. 7.
39.  T. O. Mcshane and E. Mcshane-Caluzi, Conservation Before the Crisis: A Study for Conservation in Gabon , report prepared for WWF, Libreville, 1990.
40.  Le Gabon , El Hadj Omar Bongo, Libreville, 1984, p. 86.
41.  Much of the data concerning bush meat in Yaoundé emanates from Athanase Bopda, La Consommation du Gibier à Yaoundé , unpublished, Yaoundé, 1994.
42.  André Franqueville also observed that game was not a major consumer choice in his influential study of Yaoundé, Yaoundé: Construire une Capitale, Paris , 1984, p. 111.
43.  Noted in Philippe Laburthe-Tolra, Les Seigneurs de la Forêt , Paris 1981, p. 274.
44.  J.L. Dongmo, L'Approvisionnement Alimentaire de Yaoundé , Yaoundé, 1990 in Bopda, op. cit ., p. 13.
45.  Franqueville, op. cit ., p. 111.
46.  République du Cameroun, VI Plan Quinquennal de Développement Economique Social et Culturel: 1986-1991 , Yaoundé, 1986, p. 95.
47.  Ibid ., p. 95.
48.  Quoted in Bopda, op. cit ., p. 15.
49.  Our observations, confirmed in Laurent Debroux and Marc Dethier, Valorisation des Produits Secondaires de la Forêt Dense Humide Tropicale , unpublished Masters thesis, Gembloux, 1993.
50.  Charles Doumenge, op. cit. , p. 53.
51.  Zaire's official statistics no longer make reference to animal husbandry. See Ministère de la Coopération, Les Etats d'Afrique, de l'Océan Indien et des Caraibes; Paris, 1993, p. 418.
52.  Malekani Mbukulirahi, Quelques aspects de l'utilisation de la faune au Zaire , 1991, unpublished, p. 7.
53.  Ibid ., p. 7.
54.  Lapika Dimomfu et. al., Enquête sur la Consommation de la Viande de Singe a Kinshasa, Kinshasa, 1994, unpublished, p. 9.
55.  Notes de Conjuncture , Kinshasa, February, 1994, p. 9.
56.   Guy-Marin Kamandji Lossi, Impact des Piroguiers et "Cyclistes" dans l'Approvivionnement de la Ville de Kisangani ; working title, n.p., n.d. (CEDAF file) and Malekani op. cit.
57.  Comments here on insects, fruit, leaves, mushrooms and oil palm products were drawn in part from, C. M. Hladik, S. Bahuchet and I. de Garine (eds.), Food and Nutrition in the African Rain Forest , UNESCO, Paris, 1990.
58.  Fidèle Mialoundama in C.M. Hladik et. al. , (eds.) 1993, op. cit. p. 181.
59.  This section on anthropological perceptions drew heavily on pilot studies prepared specifically in the context of this project by Gabonese, Zairian and Cameroonian researchers. Michael Ndobegang, Yaoundé City Dwellers and Their Perceptions of the Forest, unpublished, Yaoundé, 1994. Joseph Befame-Nseme, et. al ., La Representation Mentale de la Forêt par les Citadins du Gabon , unpublished, Libreville, 1994. Marius Indjieley et. al., La Consommation de la Viande de Brousse à Libreville , unpublished, Libreville, 1994. Lapika Dimomfu et. al., Enquête sur l'Arboriculture dans la Zone de Lemba à Kinshasa, unpublished, Kinshasa, 1994. Unless stated otherwise data comes from them.
60.  George Abiagnan, Chairman, Botambi Solidarity Association, quoted in Marcus Colchester, "Slave and Enclave", Never Drink from the Same Cup: Proceedings of the Conference on Indigenous Peoples in Africa , Tune, Denmark, 1993, p. 225.
61.  Even the Latin origin of the word forest is discordant with modern usage: the term forest as we have inherited it refers to areas outside of social or civilised space. "Forest civilisation" thus becomes a non sequitur .
    In contemporary African legislation, forests are considered as unplanted natural spaces. See Daou V. Joiris in Bahuchet and de Maret (eds.) op. cit ., p. 414.
62.  Philippe Laburthe-Tolra, op. cit ., p. 276.
63.  The related concept of the "exit phenomenon" was well-developed by Michael Schatzberg in The Dialectics of Oppression in Zaire , Bloomington, 1988.
64.  Philippe Laburthe-Tolra, op. cit. , p. 276-277.
65.  Pierre Bonte and Michel Izard, Dictionnaire de l'ethnologie et de l'anthropologie , Paris, 1991, p. 134.
66.  For an account of these taboos see Igor de Garine and Claude Marcel Hladik in C. M. Hladik, S. Bahuchet and I. de Garine, op. cit ., p. 92.
67.  Trees are not only perceived as having functional or commercial value. Trees, and bushes as well, are perceived as possessing great spiritual and anthropomorphic powers. While this section focuses on timber and the environment, further work needs to be done on how city dwellers perceive trees. Professor Lapika Dimomfu of UNIKIN has examined the social relevance of trees in Kinshasa in l'Arbre et Nous , unpublished, (personal communication). Work relating to trees as spiritual entities has been carried out by: F. De Boeck, On Trees and Kings: Politics and Metaphor Among the Aluund of South-Western Zaire , unpublished manuscript, 1993; and Christina Papa, Noi Siamo Come Un Albero ..., Rome, 1993.
68.  For an overview of how the environment is perceived in Cameroon see: Centre de Cooopération Cameroun Canada, l'Environement au Cameroun: Perception de l'Environement au Cameroun , 1991; H. Atem, Urban Residents and their Environment, a study of Environmental Perceptions , Yaoundé, 1985; and T. Nwel, Introduction à une Pédagogie d'Education en Environement au Cameroun , Yaoundé, 1983.
69.  "The Tropical Forestry Action Plan: What Progress?", Marcus Colchester and Larry Lohmann, The Ecologist ; n. p., n. d., p. 45.
70.  Sayer, op. cit ., p. 112.
71.  Chris Wilks, La Conservation des Ecosystèmes Forestiers du Gabon , Gland, 1990, p. 9.
72.  Republic of Cameroon, Environment and Sustainable Development for Cameroon , Yaoundé, 1992, p. 18.
73.  This remark was made prior to the new forestry of January 1994. Ibid . p. 18.
74.  République du Cameroun, Loi n° 94/01 du 20 Jan. 1994, Portant Régime des Forêts, de la Faune et de la Peche. To help put this law in context, see: Jean Aubé, Cameroon Forestry Sector Overview , prepared for USAID Cameroon, 1993.
75.  Chris Wilks, op. cit ., 1990, p. 1 & 9.
76.  American Embassy Libreville, Foreign Economic Trends and Their Implications for the United States , Gabon, 1993, p. 3.
77.  Ibid ., p. 3.
78.  Charles Doumenge, op. cit ., p. 19.
79.  Chris Wilks, op. cit ., 1990, p. 9.
80.  Notes de Conjuncture , Kinshasa, Fevrier 1994, p. 4.
81.  On the subject of parallel econony see, Janet MacGaffy, The Real Economy of Zaire , London and Philadelphia, 1991.
82.  Daou V. Joiris in Bahuchet and de Maret (eds.), op. cit ., p. 391.
83.  With respect to the Nunu river people of the middle Zaire River, colonial interference brought on conflict of identity which in turn contributed to the shattering of the Belgian Congo and the civil war of the early 1960s. The situation of the Nunu is explained in Robert Harms, Games Against Nature: An Eco-Cultural History of the Nunu of Equatorial Africa , Cambridge, 1987.
84.  Serge Bahuchet, "l'Invention des Pygmées" in Cahiers d'Etudes africaines , 129, XXXIII-1, Paris, 1993, pp. 153-181.
85.  Daou V. Joiris in Bahuchet and de Maret (eds.) op.cit ., p. 392.
86.  Ibid ., p. 399.
87.  Basil Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State , New York, 1992.
88.  James F. Barnes, Gabon: Beyond the Colonial Legacy , Boulder, 1992, in M. Colchester, op. cit ., p. 192.
89.  On a fact-finding excursion to a fishing and hunting camp fairly deep in the forest near Kango (approximately one hundred kilometres from Libreville) the person serving as the author's guide (a man who bought smoked fish from this and other camps selling it in Libreville) recounted that "these hunters can slay two or three elephant for you in an hour's time". That there are in fact no elephant in that region is not capital: what is interesting is the verbalised respect for technique and prowess.
    
90.  This ignorance can also be attributed to the non-availability and high cost of this type of information in Africa.