The actual cultural ecology is described next. Four activities are brought to the fore, hunting, fishing, gathering and agriculture, so as to show up both their complementarity within the group, and their relative importance for each ethnic group. Lastly, we have provided basic information on their diet.
The most difficult problem was not a lack of documents but rather the heterogeneity of the information, practically every author having used his own set of parametres.
The tenth ethnic groups, as well as the principal references, are the following :
* Aguaruna
sources : BERLIN B. & BERLIN E. A. (1983); BERLIN E. A. & MARKELL (1977); BROWN (1980, 1984).
* Chimane
sources : STEARMAN (1992); RIOJA-BALLIVIáN (1993 : reply to our questionnaire).
* Kayapo-Mekrangnoti
sources : FLOWERS, GROSS, RITTER & WERNER (1982); WERNER (1983); ANDERSON & POSEY (1985); ZARUR (1979).
* Maku
sources : SILVERWOOD-COPE (1980); MILTON (1984).
* Nambikwara
sources : ASPELIN (1976, 1979); ROQUETTE-PINTO (1975).
* Piaroa
sources : OVERING & KAPLAN (1988); EDEN (1980); MANSUTTI (1988, 1990, 1993: reply to our questionnaire).
* Shipibo-Konibo
sources : BEHRENS (1981); TOURNON (1988).
* Urubu-Ka'apor
sources : BALéE (1985, 1992, 1993 : reply to our questionnaire).
* Wayãpi
sources : GRENAND, P. (1980, 1993); GRENAND, F. (1993); GRENAND, F. & HAXAIRE (1977).
* Yanomami
sources : CHAGNON (1977), Fuentes (1980); LIZOT (1980, 1984, 1988, 1993 : reply to our questionnaire).
localisation : Peru. Departements of Loreto, Amazonas and San Martin
environment : lowland rain forest and montane forest.
|
demography
: Approximately 25 000 people. High population increase.
densité : 0,9 inhab./km2
|
linguistic family : Jivaro family.
cultural characteristics : One of the four Jivaro sub-groups. Warfare
(including obtaining trophy heads) against neighbouring ethnic groups has
disappeared. But there are still vendettas between local groups and they
continue to resist any form of contact. Shamanism is omnipresent. Manioc beer
is an essential component in establishing social relationships.
|
social
system : Until 1960, scattered housing in communal houses sheltering extended families ; since 1970, communal houses are brought together as villages (with an average of 120 or 150 inhab.).
Leaders are not organized as a federation. Each household head has power over
those within.
|
Land :
the concept of space : A recent distinction has appeared opposing on the
one hand the territory inhabited and cultivated by themselves or by mestizos
and, on the other hand, wild areas undisturbed by human beings.
|
| official
status of land : Territories have been granted to their communities under
the national land reform. The 6 318 ha granted to a community of 121
inhabitants in San Martin is a good average. Settlers are invading the area
causing huge problems.
|
| area
covered by their activities : They cover 2 200 000 ha when carrying out
subsistence activities.
|
agriculture : It is a sophisticated form of agriculture including
54 different species and many cultivars. A new plot of 0,5 ha is cleared with
fire every year. Subsistence crops (dominated by sweet manioc, followed by
plantain) and cash crops are planted out on the plots. Great care and attention
are given to a polyspecific orchard.
|
hunting : It is very important. It is carried out with blowpipes
and darts with poisoned tips ; nowadays guns are also used ; 26 species of
mammals and birds are commonly caught.
|
| fishing
: Carried out especially with ichtyotoxics, its product is quantitatively
equivalent to that of hunting.
|
| gathering
: Highly diversified : fruits, fungi, larvae and the chicks of guacharo
(a cavernicolous bird much sought-after for its high levels of fat
concentration).
|
diet : It is well-balanced : 60% sweet manioc ; 15% plantain and
other cultivated and semi-cultivated plant products ; 25% wild products, mainly
provided by hunting terrestrial and aquatic species.
|
location : Bolivia, departement of Beni. environment :
lowland rain forest ; flooded grassland and riparian forest.
|
demography
: Approximately 4 000 people. [Major discrepancies between the different censuses : 4 000 (CIDEBENI, 1991); 2 000 (Ethnologue, 1987); 7 000 (RIOJA-BALLIVIáN, pers.comm., 1992)].
density : 1,17 inhab./km2
|
| linguistic family : Mosetene-Chimane, Macro-Pano group (+/- 70 % are monolingual) cultural characteristics : Shamanism has been replaced by a form of esotericism. Places of worship in the forest are kept secret. |
social
system : The basic unit is the extended family, each one being led by the eldest man.
They live 100 or 200 m apart. Dispersal entails high mobility throughout the
forest as families are constantly visiting each other.
|
Land :
the concept of space : Space is defined on the basis of the extended
family, and boundaries are upheld through mutual repect.
|
| official
status of land : Communal ownership over the land they occupy is
recognized, which land is included in indigenous territories. There is also a
reserve for the biosphere.
|
| area
covered by their activities : 600 000 ha.
|
agriculture : Swidden agriculture. A plot of 1 to 1,5 ha is
cultivated every year by each family, used for 2 or 3 years and then left
fallow for 4 to 8 years. The main crops are bitter manioc, plantain and
mountain rice.
|
| land
ownership : Communal ownership.
|
hunting : It is a very important activity (large rodents,
peccaries, armadillos, primates and deer species), carried out collectively or
individually, usually using the bow and arrow and occasionally a gun.
|
| fishing
: It is carried out with hook and line, ichtyotoxics and, very occasionally
with nets. Even if hunting is more prestigious than fishing, the latter yields
more in weight.
|
| gathering
: Mainly wild fruits, especially from palm trees. Cutting palm leaves
(Geonoma deversa) (used for roofing) for trade is also an important
activity. For a long time now, the Chimane have been involved in complex
compadrazgo (an unequal alliance between individuals or families
entailing various obligations) with men carrying out small-scale extractivism
and local itinerant tradesmen.
|
| animal
husbandry : The Chimane do not themselves breed animals, but they are in
the habit of offering their services as peons on the neighbouring cattle
ranches.
|
diet : It is based on self-subsistence and gift reciprocity. +/-
20 % are provided by forest products, approximately 10 % by bought products
obtained through trade, and the remaining 70 % by agriculture. Another source
mentions animal products as dominant in their diet, but no quantitative data is
available (Stearman, 1992).
|
location : Brazil State of Pará
environment : lowland rain forest
|
demography
: approximately 564 people (and one uncontacted group)
density : 0,08 inhab./km2
|
| linguistic family : Gé family cultural characteristics : The Mekrangnoti are two sub-groups belonging to the larger mass of Kayapo populations. Well-structured leadership, defined and controlled shamanism and powerful vitality have made of the Kayapo one of the most active groups in the struggle of the Indian populations of the Amazonia. |
social
system :
The basic unit is the village. Kinship is one structure, others such as
men's societies, ceremonial groups and age-groups, being the real actors.
|
Land :
the concept of space: : Space is subtly divided according to the degree
to which it has been altered by human beings.
|
| official
status of land : 4 913 000 ha constitute a forbidden area ; 1 850 000 ha
have reached the stage of identification.
|
| area
covered by their activities: This is one of the few cases in which the area
allotted to them is bigger than that covered by their activities.
|
agriculture : Each year, a small plot of 0,25 ha (sources are
very imprecise) is cleared with fire. Crops are manioc (38%), sweet potato
(27,5%), plantain (17,5%), corn (14%) and yam (3%).
|
| land
ownership : No form of ownership is recognized.
|
hunting : It is an essential activity, characterized by regular
disbanding during both the dry and the rainy season and which takes up 22 % of
their time annually. Large game and tortoises are dominant.
|
| fishing
: It is of little importance and only represents one twentieth of what
hunting yields.
|
| gathering
: It is associated with hunting expeditions. Honey is much sought-after.
Related to them are the Kayapo-Gorotire (ANDERSON & POSEY, 1985) who
systematically alter areas of srub woodland by increasing the floral variety
with useful species.
|
diet : 50% of their daily diet is provided by cultivated plants.
45% is the product of hunting and 5% of gathering (plants and other wild
products).
|
location : Brazil : State of Amazonas Colombia : States of Vaupes and Guainia.
environment : lowland rain forest and low forest on white sand
(campina)
|
demography
: +/- 2300 people (uncontacted groups are not included). There is a slow
demographic increase.
density : +/- from 0,1 to 0,2 inhab./km2
|
| linguistic family : isolated language cultural characteristics : The Maku are a huge mass made up of numerous mobile scattered sub-groups some of which are still isolated. They have a relationship of vassalage with the neighbouring Tukano, a fishing population, for whom they provide forest products (especially smoked meat) and labour (for agriculture and building houses) in exchange for manioc, tobacco, chilli peppers and manufactured goods. |
social
system : The ideal basic unit is the clan, but economically it is the
household or extended family, led by one of the older men. Villages are made of
several households (15 to 25 people), are very basic, with little cohesion and
frequent recomposition. Villages are only used 6 months of the year, the rest
of the time being spent in temporary camps throughout the forest.
|
Land :
the concept of space: Their environment is the forest. There are no
negative forces at play in the forest (no spirits live there) and no magical
preoccupations are associated with hunting. A man spends one day out of four at
the village, the other three days being spent in the forest : one for hunting
and two for gathering foodstuffs and the materials necessary for craftwork with
occasionnally a bit of hunting and fishing.
|
| official
status of land : The land which they cover is actually included in the
reserves of neighbouring Tukano groups (Brazil, Colombia), national forests
(Brazil) or has no guarantee at all (Brazil).
|
| area
covered by their activities : Due to the fact that these are highly mobile
and scattered groups, it is very difficult to evaluate just how big is the area
which they cover while carrying out subsistence activities ; but it is
definitely very large.
|
agriculture : The Maku seem to have acquired it only recently
despite having worked for the Tukano on their plots. Plots are between 0,3 and
0,5 ha, messy and only cultivated in parts. Only 13 species can be seen, most
of which were planted out of curiosity, except manioc (with only 7 cultivars).
|
| land
ownership: No form of ownership is recognized. A right to the products of
the land which is being exploited is guaranteed so long as the exploitation
lasts.
|
hunting : It takes up most of the men's life and they hunt 75
species of game. Women join in the beats, using hunting-spears. Men usually
hunt alone, several hours before dawn, with blowpipes, bows and arrows, and
nowadays guns. Poison is a classic element in hunting.
|
| fishing
: Considered an easy subsidiary activity, they only engage in fishing when
hunting has proved unsuccessful. They distinguish only 42 species of fish. They
use ichtyotoxics and the bow and arrow.
|
| gathering
: It is carried out by men and includes both plant products (for craftwork and
54 species of edible fruits) and animal products (24 species of edible insects
or honey). "Bloodless" animal products are collected by women who may not eat
fish or game when menstruating.
|
diet : Despite the above information, one source refers to manioc
as constituting 80 % of the Maku's diet (cassava, manioc flour and beers) most
of which is traded with the neighbouring Tukano. 44 gr is also quoted as an
adult's daily intake of protein, thus covering their need. This figure must be
related to the following : 5,15 kg of meat/man/hunting expedition, a large
quantity of which is given to the neighbouring Tukano, while the Maku eat 0,83
kg of fish/man/expedition when the occasion arises.
|
location : Brazil States of Mato Grosso and Rondônia.
environment : lowland and deciduous rain forest, scrub woodland
(cerrado).
|
demography
: +/- 1000 people. There is a slow demographic increase.
density : 0,06 inhab./km2
|
linguistic family : isolated language
cultural characteristics : Over 15 dialectal sub-groups form a basic
cultural unit. Their previous reputation as nomads has been disproved. They
return regularly to the graves of their ancestors to feed the spirits.
|
social system : The basic unit is the family, mobile from november to march and in june-july. In april-may and from august to october, families come together as stable village communities based on exchange (+/- 40 people).
Village sites are occupied for 3 to 10 years. Decisions are made by consensus.
|
Land :
the concept of space : The Nambikwara have a marked preference for open
spaces, and tend to travel more in the cerrado than in denser forest
areas.
|
| official
status of land : 1 107 593 ha legalized ; 359 206 ha ratified ; 130 577 ha
demarcated.
|
| area
covered by their activities : The surface area guaranteed by the State
covers the area in which they travel, but the invasion of non-indigenous
populations (settlers and industrial projects for the production of sugar cane)
are a source of major problems.
As an example : two communities, a total of 80 people, exploit 9 000 ha.
|
agriculture : Small plots are cleared with fire to cultivate
manioc, corn, beans, yams, plantain and bananas.
|
| land
ownership : Loose territories exploited by each band with partial overlap
for hunting and gathering areas. No concept of ownership.
|
hunting : Carried out more intensively during the rainy season,
it is an important activity. They use clubs, bows and arrows and nowadays guns.
|
| fishing
: It is practically non-existent.
|
| gathering
: Carried out by men and women when agricultural activities do not require
full-time attention. It includes both animal products (various larvae) and
plant products which have been encouraged to grow along hunting routes.
Collecting palm fruits (Oenocarpus bacaba) is also an important
activity.
|
diet : A source dating from early this century (ROQUETTE-PINTO,
1975) says that "generally speaking, the Nambikwara eat everything". Plant
products make up 59 % of their diet (41% manioc, 4% plantain, 14% other fruits
and corn, yam and semi-cultivated plants). 41% is made up of animal products
from hunting (23% birds, 5% peccaries, 5% monkeys, 5% others), fishing (0,9%
fish), or collecting (2,6% insects, 3% various animals and plants).
|
location : Venezuela : States of Bolívar and Amazonas Colombia : eastern Llanos (Vichada)
environment : lowland rain forest.
|
demography
: Venezuela : 12 400 people (1992) Colombia : 600 (1992) The population is increasing.
density : 0,27 inhab./km2
|
| linguistic family : Saliva (+/- 64 % are monolingual) cultural characteristics : The Piaroa used to be the most important producers of curare. Their shamans have a good reputation. The sacred instruments and masks are kept in the men's house. |
social
system : Three types of communal houses shelter extended families : round and cone-shaped (that can shelter 100 people), elliptic and cone-shaped (40 people) or rectangular (15 people) ; they reflect the status of their chief. They may be united and led by a regional leader. These days the tendency is to settle around the Creole centres.
Decisions are made by consensus.
|
Land: the concept of space : The alliance with creative forces is periodically renewed by rituals which take place in the forest, especially near waterfalls in mountainous areas.
Around the larger well-established villages, a savannah-type vegetation tends
to appear.
|
| official
status of land : Venezuela : no specific laws ; Piaroa land belongs
to the state. Tourism is controlled. There are 2 national parks and 1 forest
reserve. 41 000 ha have been granted to communities, but not as one continuous
area. Colombia : 3 reserves of 181 193 ha.
|
| area
covered by their activities : Venezuela : 45 000 km2.
Demographic concentration in middle Orinoco has led to reduced availability of
agricultural land and excessive exploitation of game.
|
agriculture : Each family annually clears 1/2 ha of primary and
secondary forest by burning to cultivate approximately 50 plants, mainly bitter
manioc, corn and sweet potato. A plot is abandonned after 4 years and left
fallow for at least 15 years. Nowadays there seems to be a tendency towards
using secondary forest to a greater extent and exploiting fewer species and
varieties. Part of the agricultural production is sold : the sub-products of
manioc, pineapple, bananas...
|
| land
ownership : A right to its produce is recognized to whoever works the land,
but the right cannot be transmitted. The man at the head of each communal house
is responsible for the upkeep of the fertility of the territory around the
house, the boundaries being redefined with each new leader.
|
hunting : They hunt large and small game, especially tapir,
peccary and deer. The Piaroa used to hunt with blowpipes and spears but these
are increasingly replaced by guns. Trapping is common. They sell the meat of
agouti and paca salted and smoked.
|
| fishing
: It is an important activity carried out preferably in black- rather than
white-water rivers. They use ichtyotoxics, fences, hoop-nets, hook and line ;
hook and line fishing in deep water, with harpoons and bows and arrows. They
sell salted and dried fish.
|
| gathering
: There is constant movement throughout the year in search for products to
collect. Picking the fruits of various palms is an important activity. Honey,
larvae of coleoptera, flying ants. They sell piaçava fibre
(Leopoldinia piassaba) and the oil of palm fruits.
|
| animal
husbandry : Some villages have a herd of cattle, both for their own
consumption and for sale.
|
diet : 80% of their diet is dependent on the products of agriculture, 20% on forest products.
Their diet is still based on self-subsistence for isolated communities and
people over 40 years old. Children in larger villages are totally dependent on
food brought in from outside.
|
location : Perou : Departements of Ucayali and Loreto.
environment : Mainly flooded forests (várzea ) : water
covers 10% of their territory permanently and 90% for 2 months a year. The rest
is lowland rain forest.
|
demography
: +/- 20 000 people
density : 4 inhab./km2. It is one of the highest known
densities and can only be explained by the rich soil with its yearly silt
deposit from the river.
|
| linguistic family : Pano family. cultural characteristics : The Shipibo are a fishing population living in the rich environment of the várzea. They are skilled potters and weavers. |
social
system :
The basic unit is the village (100 to 1000 people), made up of houses
sheltering nuclear families. The village extends along the river banks and is
not always protected from the floods.
|
Land :
the concept of space : The Shipibo distinguish many ecotones.
|
| area
covered by their activities : Their territory, extending beyond both shores
of the Ucayali over 640 km, is interspersed with non-indigenous groups
(settlers from the Andes, Amazonian mestizos).
|
agriculture : swidden agriculture on the upper terraces (+/- 1/2 ha plots per family), with a rotation cycle of 3 to 6 years. Plantain is the main crop, followed by corn.
Flood plane farming (rice) on the fertile banks of the river and its
tributaries (+/-750 m2 plots) ; there is no need for rotation.
|
| land
ownership : The agricultural territory of many communities has been
recognized (72 in 1976, figure which is probably on the increase).
|
hunting : It is carried out intensively between february and
march (high flood-levels) on the upper terraces where animals are concentrated
(armadillos, coati, paca, tapir). It produces annually 1,60 kg/hour/man. They
use the bow and arrow and machete and guns are still relatively uncommon.
|
| fishing
: It is carried out throughout the year, with a peak from october to
january. It produces annually 1,15 kg/hour/man. They use bows and arrows,
harpoons, lines and hoop-nets.
|
| gathering
: It is practically non-existent.
|
diet : Even if hunting is more profitable than fishing, the
annual production of fish (407 kg/man/year) is far superior to that of meat
(133 kg/man/year) and ensures regularity in protein intake. Both these sources
make up 30% of their diet, the other 70% being provided by the products of
agriculture.
|
location : Brazil, State of Maranhão.
environment : Lowland rain forest.
|
demography
: Approximately 520 people. There is a slow demographic increase.
density : 0,2 inhab./km2
|
| linguistic family : Tupi-Guarani. cultural characteristics :
Shamanism has an individual aspect (personalized taboos, ritual obligations).
|
social
system : The basic unit is the extended family, several of them being gathered in a village of +/- 40 inhab., moving every 10-15 years. Relationships between different villages are peaceful.
Equality and consensus are the basis of all social relationships.
|
Land :
the concept of space : Forest resources are considered renewable on
condition that the rotation cycle between the different sectors of the
territory is respected. Rotation begins before any signs of soil exhaustion
appear.
|
| official
status of land : They live on land belonging to the State (a legalized
reserve of 530 524 ha). A pioneer frontier from the east is threatening their
territory.
|
| area
covered by their activities : The Urubu-Ka'apor feel constrained in their
movements at present because of the mass of settlers around them.
|
agriculture : A big plot of 2,5 ha of mixed primary and secondary
forest is cleared with fire each year. +/- 25 different plants are cultivated :
61% bitter manioc, 21% sweet manioc, sweet potato and yam, 6,5% corn, 4%
banana, 4% papaya, 3,5% other crops. Fallow always lasts more than 15 years.
The recent introduction of mountain rice as a cash crop in some villages has
destabilized the agricultural system and shortened the periods of fallow.
|
| land
ownership : Only a right of use, including a right to reserved hunting, is
recognized to each family for the duration of the exploitation of a plot.
|
hunting : For men, this is the main activity, usually carried out
alone. They use bows and arrows, guns and rifles. Quite a big proportion of
game (27%) is caught in cultivated areas (plots under cultivation, fallow and
secondary forest). They occasionally sell smoked armadillo meat.
|
| fishing
: Fishing is less developped ; it is often carried out with ichtyotoxics.
|
| gathering
: It is centrered around a good hundred species used in craftwork and 5 or 6
highly valued foodstuffs (of which Euterpe oleracea). Searching for
tortoises is systematic and important as it is the only meat a menstruating
woman may eat. They sell resin (Protium sp.) and lianas for making ropes
(Heteropsis sp.) for the market outside their area.
|
| animal
husbandry : Some villages have recently started having horses, mules
and donkeys, but the role of these animals has yet to be defined.
|
diet : Cultivated products represent +/- 80% of the total energy
; wild fruits, especially from palm, +/- 15%. Meat from hunting provides nearly
all protein in sufficient quantities. There is no dependence whatsoever on food
from outside.
|
location : French Guiana Brazil : Territory of the Amapá.
environment : Lowland rain forest.
|
demography
: Approximately 850 people. The population is increasing.
density : 0,10 inhab./km2
|
| linguistic family : Tupi-Guarani family. cultural characteristics : They came from the south of the Amazon in the 18th century. Tupi oral tradition and shamanism are in sharp contrast with the material culture which has been strongly influenced by the Karib groups of Guyana. The numerous gatherings during which a couple offers manioc beer to the rest of the community are the basis for social cohesion. |
social
system :
The basic unit is the village community, endogamy usually being balanced
by exogamy beyond the village. Leaders have little power and their position is
constantly questioned.
|
Land :
the concept of space : The forest is the locus of all origin, peopled by
entities that are dangerous for human beings ; some of its inhabitants are the
masters of animals whom humans must not offend by excessive hunting. Temperance
and modesty prevail in their relationship with the forest.
|
| official
status of land : 543 000 ha identified in Brazil and 268 750 ha in the
course of being allocated in French Guiana.
|
| area
covered by their activities : The land which they are claiming corresponds
to 65% of the area they cover with their movements (because of the borders
between Guyana and Brazil). There are a few invasions in the north and in the
south by gold-finders.
|
agriculture : Each family burns down annually a 0,5 ha plot of
mixed primary and partly regenerated forest (5 to 10 years old). Agriculture is
sophisticated with over 35 different species, including manioc, with 33
different clones and excellent yields of 18,4 t/ha, and bananas, yams, corn,
and several marantacea. Mutual help is socially very important.
|
| land
ownership : No other right except a right of use is recognized to the
families exploiting the plots, allies nevertheless getting together for their
rotations.
|
hunting : For today's generations, the gun has taken over from
the bow and arrow. Various strategies have evolved from enforced settlement :
daily outings are longer (70% of men's activities are carried out in the
forest), men or whole families go on expeditions over great distances, the
product of hunting has not reduced in quantity. For communities living around
the upper reaches of the rivers, hunting represents 72% of the weight of what
has been caught, 27,5% of which comes from secondary forest areas.
|
| fishing
: Hook and line are used throughout the year, bows and arrows and
ichtyotoxics in shallow waters ; nets are not much thought of, but cast nets
have appeared. For these same communities living around the upper reaches of
the rivers, fishing represents 28% of the weight of what is caught.
|
| gathering
: Men are in charge of collecting the products for craftwork, honey and edible
fruits (23 important species). Women collect crabs, the eggs of reptilians,
larvae of coleoptera and earth for pottery. Picking the fruit of some palms
(especially Euterpe oleracea) has a particularly important for the
Wayampi, and it mobilizes men and adolescents nearly every day when in season,
and yields huge quantities.
|
diet : For most of these communities, dependence on food from
outside is still negligible or non-existent. Depending on whether communities
are more involved in forest activities or turned towards the river, the amount
of game or fish in the diet increases proportionally. 37% of their diet is
provided by the produce of hunting or fishing ; 6% by plant or animal products
provided by gathering; 57% are agricultural products. Gift-exchange within the
community entails a constant circulation of fresh and cooked foodstuffs.
|
location : Brazil : Territory of Roraima and State of Amazonas Venezuela : Territory of Amazonas environment :
Lowland rain forest with patches of dry savannah ; montane forest.
|
demography
: Approximately 19 700 people (the Sanema, a distinct southern sub-group have not been included). Population which is on the whole increasing, but with a very recent decline in areas of contact.
density : 0,27 inhab./km2
|
| linguistic family : isolated family , (+/- 95 % are monolingual) cultural characteristics : The Yanomami form a large mass with differentiated sub-groups. Relationships between communities can be hostile. Shamans and absorbing hallucinogenic substances play an important role. The ashes of the dead are consumed by the community, the living thus becoming the depositories of the dead. |
social
system : Several nuclear or extended families, related through alliances and consanguinity, live under vast circular shelters (chapuno) (approximately 65 people) which are moved every 6 years depending on the socio-political situation. Acephalous societies, though there are factions animated (but not ruled over) by leaders.
Decisions are made by consensus.
|
Land :
official status of land : Communal ownership of occupied land is
recognized by the State in protected areas : a nature reserve of 3 420 000 ha
in Venezuela ; 9 419 108 ha of land for indigenous populations has been
officially reserved for them in Brazil.
|
| area
covered by their activities : The Yanomami live on 26 419 108 ha. Their is
a violent invasion of gold-seekers in Brazil.
|
agriculture : A 0,9 ha plot of primary forest is cleared and burnt to be used for the following 6 years. A fallow period of 15 years sometimes replaces abandoning the plot. They do occasionally periodically return to the same patch after a period of 45 to 50 years. They cultivate approximately 30 species, plantain dominating amongst groups living in the north, and manioc in the south.
Cash crops are unknown.
|
| land
ownership : The Yanomami only recognize rights of use.
|
hunting : Hunting large and small game is an essential activity.
It is carried out with bows and arrows, with a sharp increase in the use of
guns in areas of contact. Hunting poisons are also used.
|
| fishing
: It is also an important activity. They use bows and arrow, hooks and
lines and ichtyotoxics.
|
| gathering
: Throughout the year, men, women and children move in groups, establishing
forest camps to collect wild products and periodically visit former palm
plantations (Guilielma speciosa).
|
diet : Under normal conditions, it is entirely dependent on self-subsistence. Agricultural products represent 80 % and forest products the remaining 20 %.
For the groups in which socio-political conditions have deteriorated, or for
those living near missions, changes are difficult to evaluate.
|