They are hunter-horticulturalists who live in the hills and around the headwaters of River Cagayan. They have not been involved in any kind of relationship with the populations in the plains. But within their area are some non-Christian immigrants who also use swidden agriculture and who are more competitive at it ; they work in teams and are therefore more efficient than the Ilongot who tend to work alone (each Ilongot woman prepares her own plot).
There is a strong awareness of their own ethnic identity.
Habitat is close to the fields. Dwellings are clustered in groups of about 10 houses (about 65 people).
The household, based on uxorilocal residence, includes parents, married daughters and their children ; it is the basic unit of production and consumption for the swidden plot. Activities throughout the year follow the rythm of the monsoon rains.
Land tenure : they do not recognize any boundaries to their plots, hunting territories or to their territory as a whole for that matter.
Swidden agriculture is based on rice monocropping ; after the rice harvest, tubers, banana trees, sugar cane, tobacco, and vegetables are planted.
Manioc and sweet potatoes are crucial when rice is lacking, but if there is too much of them, they are fed to the dogs, domestic pigs, and used as bait for wild pigs and as snacks for humans.
Cultivation period of swidden land : on slopes, 1 or 2 years of rice, and in the valley bottom 3 to 6 years of rice ; then tubers, banana trees and other plants that require little weeding take over for 1 to 3 years, after which the land is left fallow and reverts to secondary forest.
Harvests : rice grows from November to February and is harvested mid-August to mid-November ; in April, women harvest the tobacco planted in January ; banana, sugar cane, maize and vegetables are planted in May-June.
Hunting, fishing and gathering
Hunting provides the required protein and fat.
Deer and wild pigs are the main takes and small animals are trapped.
Three types of hunting expeditions :
a - one day long hunting, as a group, with dogs, close to the village ; the meat is eaten fresh and shared between all participants.
b - 3 to 6 days, as a group, without dogs, further afield, with a temporary campsite : the meat is cut up in pieces (15 cm in diametre), smoked and can keep for 2 weeks. It will be eaten at big meetings, during marriage discussions, etc ; while out hunting, subsistence needs are met by gathering foodstuffs.
c - individual hunting is always carried out without dogs and has increased since the Japanese occupied the island and introduced firearms. Ambush is a common strategy during the fruit season (acorns). There are no sharing obligations for the individual hunter ; the meat is cut up into thin strips, dried, occasionally put in salt, and is sold to the populations in the plains. Entrails are usually brought home.
Seasonal fishing adequately supplements protein intake.
During the dry season, end of February to May, water levels are low and fishing is easy.
Gathering intensifies during the dry season when vegetables and fruits are picked in the forest while hunting as a group.
Diet
The monsoon (mid-June to mid-August) is a time of depleted food resources, but since the rice is planted at different periods during the year, the harvests of various varieties are staggered throughout the monsoon and thus palliate the food shortage.
Under favourable hunting conditions, meat (deer and wild pigs) is eaten at every second or third meal. They prefer it to the meat from domestic animals (fowl and pig).
Trade
An individual sells the produce of his own hunting expeditions (meat cut up into thin strips, dried, salted) to the populations in the plains.
[43] ROSALDO, 1981, 1988