C - THE BIG FARMING POPULATIONS

The Batak are divided into 6 ethnic groups : the Mandailing and the Angkola in the south ; the Toba (LEBAR, 1972; SIBETH, 1991) are on the central high plateaux in the north, around Lake Toba (about 1000 m above sea level) where primary forest still predominates above 1800 m ; the Pakpak/Dairi (SIBETH 1990) are to the north-west of Lake Toba ; the Karo (LEBAR, 1972; IL) west and north-west of Lake Toba ; and the Simalungun in the north and north-east.

The Minangkabau (LEBAR, 1972), syn. Urang Padang, Urang Awak, are in the western mountains in the centre, but also elsewhere in the archipelago and in Malaysia (Negri Sembilan). This major ethnic group is well-known and is only mentioned here because swidden agriculture is part of their subsistence strategy.

Socio-political organization and habitat

Society is made up of clans, localized territorially, and is a socio-political confederation.

The Rejang have 4 patriclans making up a socio-political confederation called Djang pat petulai, 'Redjang four brothers'. Each petulai is considered to be the founding ancestor of one of the 4 patriclans. They are divided into 5 main groups (-Djang Lebong, Djang Bele Tebo, in the fertile highlands of Lebong district in Bengkulu, -Djang Musai, on the rich land of the high valley of the Musi River, -Djang Lai, on the coasts of the Indian Ocean, -Djang Bekulau, in Bengkulu, -Djang Abeus or Djang Aweus, in the inaccessible areas of Rawas, along the upper course of the Musi) and 2 minor groups (the Bang Hadji and the Semitul in the foothills north-west of Bengkulu ; most likely 'redjangized populations). The Batak Pakpak have village headmen.

Among the patrilineal Rejang, marriage is patrilocal. The Minangkabau are matrilineal.

The village is the centre of the world. An individual's position in village society is determined by his belonging to the village founder's ruling family, the landowner [51]. The village headman belongs to the collateral group at district level (Toba).

Habitat varies from small villages made up of the long houses of one matrilineage to vast villages.

The most important Rejang villages are on the irrigated lands of Lebong and have up to 4000 inhabitants. Toba villages are surrounded by a palisade.

Territory and ownership

Each clan owns a territory bounded by a line (marga) recognized by the government. It includes between 8 and 32 villages located along the rivers (Rejang).

The land belongs to the village (Batak Pakpak) or to the headman (Toba).

When the land is about to be cleared, the headman divides it into plots and allocates them to each family who thus has a right to the produce of the land. This right can be transmitted patrilineally, but the land can never be completely alienated by sale or gift (Toba). The bigger plots are surrounded by a fence to protect the crops from wild pigs (Batak Pakpak).

Agriculture

Irrigated rice is the main crop in the fertile valleys (Batak Toba, Batak Karo). The Rejang grow wet rice, but prefer mountain rice for their diet and religious rituals. Job's tears (Coïx lacryma-jobis), millet are planted around the rice fields. The Minangkabau live in densely populated areas ; the rich volcanic soil yields 2 crops per year of wet rice, the staple crop, and of garden plants, the cash crops. After the rice harvest, peanuts, potatoes, wheat, tomatoes, cabbages and chili peppers are grown on the dry land.

Swidden agriculture supplements irrigated cultivation. Mountain rice is the main crop on swidden land.

The Toba grow yam, sweet potato, maize and also tobacco, sugar cane, fruits and vegetables on poorer soil. The Batak Pakpak, though they have little agriculture, also grow yams. The Minangkabau prepare fenced fields around the area of permanent fields and grow mountain rice, wheat, manioc, and marrows on them.

Swidden plots yield one or two harvests and are then left fallow for several years ; occasionally, perennial plants are subsequently grown on them.

The Minangkabau grow hevea, clove trees, cinnamon trees, pepper, coffee, coconut, sugar palm, or other fruit trees. The Toba, after 2 to 4 harvests, leave the land fallow for 8 to 10 years and use it as pasture.

They all breed cattle (Rejang and Minangkabau). On non-arable land, the Toba breed buffaloes, cows, horses ; the latter are very important economically.

Fishing, hunting and gathering are still important activities.

The Toba fish mainly in Lake Toba. The Minangkabau fish actively along the coast, in the lakes and privately owned ponds. They hunt wild pigs only for sport (they are Muslims) : the meat is fed to the dogs and do no gathering.

Diet : A basic meal is made up of rice, vegetables, dried fish and spices.

Meat (pork, beef, buffalo, chicken, dog) is only eaten during ceremonies and celebrations (Toba).

There is a well established market economy.

They sell forest products, horses and vegetables. In return they buy products from the coast : salt, dried fish, metal, tin (Toba).

Religion and the forest

Whether Christians (Toba) or Muslims (Minangkabau, Rejang, Southern Batak), they continue to believe in spirits associated with sacred places such as mountains, hills or the jungle.

These spirits can be embodied in tigers, or human monsters (Minangkabau). All these ethnic groups retain their beliefs based on the cult of the ancestors and have shamans. Some have complex funerals (Toba). Among the Rejang, the dukuen has a multiple role of priest, fortune teller, herbalist, doctor, ritual master, chronicler and bard. The Batak Karo are still ardent animists, though listed as 50% Christian.

Problems : Overpopulation has reduced fallow periods, lengthened cultivation period and exhausts the land. Regeneration of the soil's fertility is possible if the land has only been cultivated for 1 or 2 years, but is hardly conceivable after 6 or 7 years. This issue is especially sensitive in North Sumatra where the Batak population is increasing considerably.

[51] SIBETH 1991 : 43.