APFT Pilot report - English - Contents

THE SITUATION OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN TROPICAL FORESTS

Serge Bahuchet ed.

• The report
  • The organization of the project
  • The approach
• LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
  • Centre d'Anthropologie Culturelle, Université Libre de Bruxelles
  • Laboratoire de Langues et Civilisations à Tradition Orale, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris
• LIST OF THE CONSULTED PERSONS
  • Amazonian America
  • Insular Asia
  • Equatorial Africa
  • Economical, ecological and political context
  • Non governmental and indigenist organizations

FIRST PART: ANALYSIS OF THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN HUMAN POPULATIONS AND THE TROPICAL FOREST

• PREFACE
• I - DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
  • A - WHAT IS AN INDIGENOUS POPULATION ?
    • 1) OFFICIAL DEFINITIONS
    • 2) LEGAL, POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL CRITERIA
    • 3) ECONOMIC CRITERIA
  • B - THE BASES OF OUR ANALYSIS
• II - INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS IN
  RAINFOREST AREAS TODAY
  • A - HOW MANY FOREST POPULATIONS ARE THERE ?
    • 1) ETHNICITY AND LANGUAGE
    • 2) SIZE OF INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS
    • 3) CHANGES IN THE ECONOMY
  • B - FOREST ECONOMIES
    • 1) TYPES OF ECONOMIES
    • 2) HUNTING AND GATHERING
    • 3) USEFUL RESOURCES, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
    • 4) COMPLEMENTARITY OF THESE SOCIETIES
  • C - FOREST AGRICULTURE
    • FALLOW AND ARBORICULTURE
  • D - SOCIETIES
    • 1) SPATIAL ORGANIZATION AND MOBILITY
    • 2) THE ORGANIZATION OF FOREST COMMUNITIES
    • 3) CUSTOMARY RIGHT IN THE COMMUNITY
    • 4) WHAT IS AN EGALITARIAN SOCIAL SYSTEM BASED ON KINSHIP ?
• III - FACTORS OF CHANGE
  • A - CHANGES
    • 1) ENCROACHMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT
      • a) Forest exploitation
      • b) Colonization by non-natives
      • c) Cash crops
    • 2) CONSEQUENCES
      • a) The mechanisms of change among indigenous populations
      • b) The concomitants of change and ensuing costs
  • B - A NECESSARY PROCESS AND AN EQUILIBRIUM TO MAINTAIN
    • 1) THE EXPLOITATION OF WILD RESOURCES
      • Non-timber resources
    • 2) THE PROBLEM OF PROTECTED AREAS
    • 3) SWIDDEN AGRICULTURE ; CONSTRAINTS AND POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS
      • a) Factors of change
      • b) Improvements
  • C - NATION STATES AND INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS
    • 1) LEGAL STATUS AND INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS
    • 2) ATTITUDES TOWARDS INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS
    • 3) CUSTOMARY LAND RIGHTS
    • 4) COMPENSATION AND BENEFITS
    • 5) WHAT INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS HAVE TO SAY
    • 6) THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL AUTHORITIES
  • CONCLUSION
• IV - RECOMMENDATIONS
  • A - PROGRAMMES THAT HAVE ALREADY PROVED INEFFECTIVE
  • B - NECESSARY RESEARCH
  • C - DEFINING POLICIES
    • 1) AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
    • 2) ECONOMIC POLICY
    • 3) A LEGAL POLICY
    • 4) SOCIAL POLICIES
  • D - ORGANIZATION OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS
    • 1) THE PLANNERS
    • 2) THE DEVELOPERS
      (those implementing the project)
    • 3) ASSESSMENT OF THE PROJECT
      in the course of its implementation)
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY

  SECOND PART: REGIONAL STUDIES

  1 - Equatorial America

• I - INTRODUCTION
  • A - THE GEOGRAPHICAL BOUNDARIES OF OUR RESEARCH
  • B - THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT
  • C - THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF THIS REPORT
  • D - THE POLITICAL CONTEXT
  • E - THE PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN COURSE OF OUR RESEARCH FOR THIS REPORT
• II - NATIVE AMERICAN INDIANS TODAY
  • A - GEOGRAPHICAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC SITUATION
  • B - UNCONTACTED ETHNIC GROUPS
• III - THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESENT-DAY INDIAN POPULATIONS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
  • A - INDIGENOUS ECOLOGY AND ECONOMY AND THE MAIN ADAPTATIVE TRENDS THEY ILLUSTRATE.
    • 1) SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES
    • 2) SPATIAL ORGANIZATION
    • 3) AGRICULTURE
    • 4) HUNTING AND FISHING
    • 5) GATHERING
    • 6) CONCLUSION
  • B - TYPOLOGIES OF DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF EXPLOITATION
    IN GREATER AMAZONIA
    • 1) TOTALLY SELF-SUBSISTENT ECONOMIES
    • 2) ECONOMIES THAT ARE BASICALLY SELF-SUBSISTENT
    • 3) ECONOMIES PARTLY RESPONDING TO A DEMAND FROM THE OUTSIDE
    • 4) AN ECONOMY SUFFERING FROM SAVAGE CAPITALISM
    • 5) A TOTALLY ARTIFICIAL ECONOMY BASED ON THE IDEA OF DEVELOPMENT
    • 6) CONCLUSION
  • C - THE STATE OF THE NATURAL HABITATS OCCUPIED BY INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS AND THE DIFFERENT AGGRESSIONS
    THEY ARE SUBJECTED TO.
    • 1) ADVANCED PROJECTS
    • 2) MODERATE ATTACKS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
    • 3) MAJOR THREATS
    • 4) CONCLUSION
• IV - NATIVE AMERICAN INDIANS AND THEIR LAND RIGHTS
  • A - GENERAL FRAMEWORK
  • B - BOLIVIA
  • C - BRAZIL
  • D - COLUMBIA
  • E - ECUADOR
  • F - THE GUIANAS -GUYANA, SURINAME AND FRENCH GUIANA
  • G - PERU
  • H - VENEZUELA
  • I - SUMMARY OF THE INDIGENOUS LANDS AND POPULATIONS OF GREATER AMAZONIA WITHIN EACH COUNTRY
• V - EXAMPLES OF INDIGENOUS ECOSYSTEMS IN GREATER AMAZONIA
  • Aguaruna
  • Chimane
  • Kayapo-Mekrangnoti
  • Maku
  • Nambikwara
  • Piaroa
  • Shipibo-Konibo
  • Urubu-Kaapor
  • Wayampi
  • Yanomami
• BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Peninsular Malaysia

• I - ECOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY
• II - POPULATION AND SETTLEMENTS
  • A - NOMAD HUNTER-GATHERERS
  • B - SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
  • C- MANGROVE CULTIVATORS
• III - SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT
  • A - THE JUDICIARY
    • 1) THE DEPARTMENT OF ABORIGINAL AFFAIRS (JHEOA)
    • 2) MALAY LAWS AFFECTING THE ORANG ASLI
    • 3) PROPERTY AND LAND USE
  • B - PRESENT SITUATION AND THE PROBLEMS FACED BY THE ORANG ASLI
    • 1) DEFORESTATION
    • 2) DEVELOPMENT POLICY : THE 'PIONEER FRONTIERS'
    • 3) RESETTLEMENT
    • 4) ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE DEFENCE OF ORANG ASLI INTERESTS
    • 5) TRADE AND INSERTION WITHIN REGIONAL AND NATION-WIDE ECONOMY. COLLECTING PRODUCTS FOR SALE ; ALL POPULATIONS SELL RATTAN
    • 6) ETHNOECOLOGY : IMPACT OF THE ORANG ASLI ON THEIR ENVIRONMENT
• IV - THE ORANG ASLI
  • A - NOMAD HUNTER-GATHERERS
  • B- SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
  • C- MANGROVE CULTIVATORS
• V - LIST OF THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS OF MALAYSIA
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY

  2. Phillipines

• I - ECOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY
• II - POPULATIONS
  • A- MINORITIES
    • 1) MOBILE POPULATIONS
      • a) Hunter-gatherers, part-time cultivators
      • b) Hunter-cultivators
    • 2) SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
    • 3) RICE GROWERS-SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
  • B- MINORITIES AND THEIR PROBLEMS
• III - THE JUDICIARY
  • A- PROPERTY AND LAND TENURE AMONG THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS
  • B- DEVELOPMENT :
    NATIONAL ECONOMY AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS
  • C- THE GOVERNMENT AND THE MINORITIES
• IV - MOBILE POPULATIONS
  • A- THE AGTA OF LUZON
  • B - THE BATAK, ISLAND OF PALAWAN
  • C- THE ATA NEGRITOS, NEGROS ISLAND
  • D- THE MANGWANGAN, MINDANAO
• V - SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
  • A- MINDORO ISLAND
    • Social organization
    • Egalitarian and bilateral power structure
    • Property
    • Religion and the forest
    • Swidden agriculture
    • Trade : the situation varies with different ethnic groups
  • B- NEGROS ISLAND
    • 1) THE FARMS AROUND LAKE BALINSASAYO
      • Diet and health
    • 2) THE MAGAHAT (BUKIDNON), NEGROS
  • C- LUZON ISLAND
    • THE ILONGOT, NORTH LUZON
  • D- PALAWAN ISLAND
    • GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
    • SWIDDEN AGRICULTURE
  • E- MINDANAO ISLAND
    • 1) THE MANOBO AND THE MANDAYA
• VI - RICE GROWERS-SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
  • 1) THE IFUGAO OF CENTRAL NORTH LUZON
  • 2) THE TINGGIAN OF NORTH-WEST LUZON
• VII - LIST OF THE INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS OF THE PHILIPPINES
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY

  3. Indonesian Islands

• I - ECOLOGY : THE FORESTS
• II - POPULATIONS
• III - THE JUDICIARY
• IV - THE PROBLEM OF SOME DEVELOPMENT POLICIES : FOREST EXPLOITATION AND TRANSMIGRATION
• V - SUMATRA
  • Fauna and conservation
  • Economy and the ecosystem
• A- TRANSITIONAL HUNTER-GATHERERS
  • THE KUBU AND THEIR SUB-GROUPS1
    • Property and socio-political organization
    • A few societies engage in swidden agriculture
    • Hunting, fishing and gathering continue alongside agricultural activities
    • Diet : hunted meat food necessarily supplements starchy foods.
    • Trade
    • Religion and the forest
    • Contacts
• B - SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
  • C - THE BIG FARMING POPULATIONS
  • D - MENTAWAI AND ENGANO ISLAND POPULATIONS
    • 1) MENTAWAI
    • 2) ENGANO
• VI - SULAWESI (CELEBES)
  • A - HUNTER-GATHERERS
    • THE TOALA', 'THE FOREST PEOPLE'
  • B - SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
• VII - THE MOLUCCAS ARCHIPELAGO : HALMAHERA ISLAND
  • A - MOBILE POPULATIONS (RELATED TO THE TOBELO)
  • B - SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS-SAGO COLLECTORS
  • C - SERAM ISLAND
    • THE NAULU (NUAULU)
• VIII - LIST OF INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS IN INDONESIA
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY

  4. Borneo

• I - ECOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY
• II - POPULATIONS AND SETTLEMENT
  • A - ECONOMY
  • B - BORNEO'S FOREST POPULATIONS
    • 1) CONSUMERS OF WILD SAGO (EUGEISSONA)
      • a) Mobile hunter-gatherers
      • b) Settled hunter-gatherers
      • c) Rice growers-wild sago collectors
    • 2) CONSUMERS OF CULTIVATED SAGO (METROXYLON)
    • 3) SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
      • a) Shifting swidden agriculture, dry rice cultivation
      • b) Swidden agriculture and cash crops
    • 4) IRRIGATED RICE CULTIVATION
      • a) Mixed agriculture
      • b) Irrigated rice cultivation, buffalo-raising
• III - SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT
  • A - THE JUDICIARY
    • 1) SARAWAK
    • 2) KALIMANTAN
  • B - DEVELOPMENT POLICY
    • 1) SARAWAK
      • a) Forest exploitation
      • b) Agriculture
      • c) The big projects, roads and dams
    • 2) KALIMANTAN
      • a) Village resettlement
      • b) Transmigration
      • c) Forestry
• IV - HUNTER-GATHERERS
  • A - POPULATIONS
    • 1) PENAN, PUNAN
      • a) In Sarawak
      • b) Kalimantan
    • 2) FORMER HUNTER-GATHERERS
      • a) Mixed economy, horticulture and collecting for trade
      • b) Full-time cultivators
  • B - LIFE STYLE
    • 1) ECOLOGY
    • 2) HABITAT AND SOCIAL MORPHOLOGY
      • a) Size of the communities
      • b) Population density and territory
      • c) Habitat
      • d) Mobility
    • 3) SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
      • Communications between different communities
    • 4) SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY
      • a) Agriculture
      • b) Gathering
      • c) Access to resources
      • d) Hunting
    • 5) DIET
    • 6) TRADE : RELATIONSHIPS WITH SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
    • 7) CHOOSING A WAY OF LIFE
  • C - OTHER GROUPS DESCENDING FROM HUNTER-GATHERER POPULATIONS
    • a) Aoheng
    • b) Bukitan
    • c) Lebu
    • d) Seputan and Sihan
• V - GROUPS OF SWIDDEN CULTIVATORS
  • A - GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNICITY
    • ECOLOGY
  • B - POPULATION
    • 1) DENSITY
    • 2) THE TERRITORY AND ITS BOUNDARIES
  • C - HABITAT AND SOCIAL MORPHOLOGY
    • 1) VILLAGE SIZE
    • 2) LONG HOUSES
    • 3) SEASONAL MOBILITY
    • 4) COMMUNICATIONS BETWEEN COMMUNITIES
  • D - SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
    • 1) THE SYSTEM OF SOCIAL CLASSES
    • 2) THE COMMUNITY
    • 3) THE HOUSEHOLD
  • E - AGRICULTURE
    • 1) CUSTOMARY LAND RIGHTS
    • 2) FIELD SELECTION
    • 3) CULTIVATED PLANTS
    • 4) AREAS CULTIVATED
    • 5) THE AGRICULTURAL CYCLE AND FALLOW LAND
  • F - HUNTING AND FISHING
    • 1) ANIMALS THAT DESTROY THE CROPS
    • 2) HUNTING
      • Hunting rights
    • 3) FISHING
  • G - GATHERING
  • H - DIET
    • LIVESTOCK HUSBANDRY
  • I - TRADE
    • CASH CROPS
  • J - RELIGION AND THEIR VIEW OF THE WORLD
  • K - RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER EHTNIC GROUPS
• VI - LIST OF INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS IN BORNEO
  • BIBLIOGRAPHY

    5. New Guinea

  • Choice of presentation
  • I - ECOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY
  • II - POPULATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS
    • A - POPULATION STRUCTURE AND DIVERSITY
    • B - HABITAT
    • C - SPATIAL ORGANIZATION
    • D - TRADITIONAL SOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
    • E - TRADE AND TRADITIONAL EXCHANGE NETWORKS
    • F - THE PIG IN NEW GUINEA
    • G - HUMAN ECOLOGY
      • 1) THE LOWLAND MARSHES AND THEIR SWAMP FORESTS
        • a) Sago collectors
        • b) Sago, supplemented by permanent agriculture on low hills
        • c) Sago, supplemented by horticulture, shifting swidden agriculture on forested land
        • d) Swiddening (intensive agriculture) and supplementary sago
        • e) Swiddening (without sago), fishing
      • 2) THE HILL FORESTS (LOW AND MID-ALTITUDE)
        • a) Shifting swidden agriculture in forested areas with seasonal exploitation of sago (wild and cultivated)
        • b) Shifting swidden agriculture in forested areas
      • 3) THE HIGHLANDS
        • a) Intensive monocropping (swidden agriculture on grasslands)
        • b) Grassland population with marginal forest exploitation
      • 4) ISLAND POPULATIONS : NEW BRITAIN AND NEW IRELAND
  • III - NEW GUINEA'S SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT
    • A - PAPUA NEW GUINEA
      • DEVELOPMENT POLICY
        • Land tenure
    • B - IRIAN JAYA
      • Attitude towards indigenous populations
      • Reactions among indigenous populations
      • Transmigration
      • Land and forest policy
      • Forest exploitation
  • IV - POPULATIONS OF THE HILL FORESTS
    • A - ECOLOGY
    • B - POPULATION AND SETTLEMENTS
      • Size of villages
    • C - SOCIAL MORPHOLOGY
      • Seasonal mobility
    • D - AGRICULTURE
      • Cultivated plants
      • Cultivated areas
    • E - FOREST PRODUCTS
      • Gathering
      • Trees and their use
      • Fishing
      • Hunting
    • F - DIET
    • BIBLIOGRAPHY
    • ILLUSTRATIONS

  3 - Central Africa

• I - ECOLOGY
• II - GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION
  • A - THE REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON
  • B) THE REPUBLIC OF CONGO
  • C) THE GABON REPUBLIC
  • D) THE REPUBLIC OF EQUATORIAL GUINEA
  • E) THE CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
  • F) THE REPUBLIC OF ZAïRE
• III - FOREST POPULATIONS
  • A) TYPES OF EXPLOITATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT
  • B) THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF FOREST SOCIETIES
    • 1) Traditional populations and the forest
    • 2) From symbiotic to specialized economies
    • 3) Societies with markets and societies without
    • 4) The position of leader in non-hierarchical societies
    • 5) Mobility and forest territories
  • C) HUNTER-GATHERERS
  • D) TRADITIONAL SWIDDEN AGRICULTURISTS
    • 1) Characteristics
    • 2) The main ethnic groups
  • E) FISHING POPULATIONS
    • 1) Characteristics
    • 2) The main ethnic groups
• IV - THE SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT
  • THE RIGHT TO LAND IN FOREST SOCIETIES OF CENTRAL AFRICA
  • EQUATORIAL GUINEA
  • ZAïRE
  • CONGO, RéPUBLIQUE POPULAIRE DU CONGO
  • GABON
  • CAMEROON
  • THE CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
• V - HUNTER-GATHERERS
  • TECHNIQUES AND SUBSISTENCE
  • SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
  • RELATIONS WITH AGRICULTURISTS
  • MODERN TRENDS
• VI - SWIDDEN AGRICULTURISTS
  • 1) SETTLEMENT
  • 2) FOOD CROPS
  • 3) CASH CROPS
  • 4) HUNTING, GATHERING AND FISHING
  • 5) DIET
  • 6) POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
  • 7) CUSTOMARY LAND LAW
• VII - FISHING POPULATIONS
  • HABITAT
  • FISHING
  • AGRICULTURE AND COMPLEMENTARY ACTIVITIES
  • TRADE AND EXCHANGE
  • CUSTOMARY LAND LAW
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
• ILLUSTRATIONS