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often divide their labour, some remaining to work the land, others going away
to earn cash. Brothers may even remain together after the father’s death for
this purpose.
The Agricultural Bank provides loans at cheap interest rates, and often lend
each other money without interest, especially small sums. The village is a
network of such small loans. The richer houses are more able to face debt
than the poor houses.
Chapter XIV. - Religion
The ritual practices and beliefs are those of orthodox Islam, and the villagers
are pious and knowledgable about Islam. They learn about it from the village
imam, and from frequent conversations with each other on religious matters.
There are, of course, many individual lapses from piety, but most men do
namaz from time to time, and the old men do it regularly. More do it in the
winter than in the summer. There is a noticeable correlation between wealth
and position on the one hand, and piety and religious learning on the other.
The women are much more ignorant than the men and only the old ones do
namaz, though young and old are very particular to keep the fast of Ramazan.
The belief in the divine revelation justifies and sanctions, not only the moral
system of the village, but also the details of practical life, such as personal
cleanliness, the system of inheritance, the segregation of the sexes, hospitality
to strangers, loyalty to the government and so on.
The words for good and bad in conduct are the words for sin and meritorious
action, and ritual defects are not distinguished from moral defects. Islam
provides a picture of the universe in terms of Allah, its Creator and Ruler,
whose will it is a sin to question. Thus Islam provides a single systematic
account of and support for all the village institutions, all the rules of
behaviour, and the physical universe.
Chapter XV. - Social Change
Although the westernisation of Turkey should provide an ideal study in social
change, it is not possible to say anything definite about it from the study of
one village at one point in time. Economic change is proceeding through the
impoverishment of the villages by division of the land among children. This
is counteracted by greater variety of crops and by assistance with price control
and credit from the government, and a steady market for grain. Migrant
labour has also increased village income.
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Politically, the muhtar has lost power inside the village, which is now without
political leadership. The power and interference of the central government in
increasing. The villagers are nationalist in outlook, and consciously loyal to
the government.
The kabile is weakening, due to the law and order established by the
government. Women are said to be freer than they used to be, and this
process seems likely to continue. The household shows little sign of
weakening, except that sons may now, by going to town, attain economic
independence.
There is cultural contact with the cities through the migrant labourers, but
what effect this is likely to have is not clear. The village way of life does not
seem to the villagers to be changing. It is as yet firm and protected from
rapid change by its religious beliefs.
Chapter XVI. - The Social Structure
This chapter is a recapitulation. The village and the household stand out as
social units, in that, in different ways, they are both clearly defined both
spatially and socially, and both mean for their members many-stranded
relationships.
The Quarter is a vaguer group, based on locality, and the smaller
neighbourhood groups are even vaguer. The kabile also forms a social group
based on kinship, with no definite boundary. Turning to horizontal
differences, one finds a lack of formal barriers between people at different
levels in the social scale. Status is based on personal prestige, in turn
dependent mainly on wealth but partly, also, on piety and morality.
The sexual division cuts right across these units and groupings, dividing the
village into two inter-connected sets of social relationships. It is important,
when using terms such as “structure” and “social unit” not to forget the reality
of activities and feelings of the human beings one is studying.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
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Chapter I
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Historical and Political Background
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1. Geography
2. The Ottoman Empire
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3. The Republic of Turkey
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II
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Relation of Town and Village - General Administration
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1. Divorce of Town and Village
2. Village Law
3. Village Institutes
4. Government assistance to agriculture
5. Administrative system
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III
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Kayseri and Sakaltutan
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IV
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Village and Households
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1. Village and Quarter
2. Households
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V
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Kinship and Neighbourhood: Kabile and Oda
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1. Kabile
2. Patrilateral Kinship and Terminology
3. Other Kinship Ties within the Village
4. The Composition of Groups attending “odalar”
5. Personal Friendships
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VI
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Kinship and Neighbourhood: Women and Inter-Village Ties
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1. Women within the Village
2. Inter-Village Kinship
3. Locality and Kinship
4. Age and Seniority
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1. Division of Labour
2. Social Segregation
3. Prestige
4. Conclusion
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1. Husband and Wife
2. Polygamy
3. Cross-sex relationships
4. Women Together
5. Men Together
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6. The Division of Households
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1. Summary of Ceremonies
2. Choice of Bride
3. Bride Price
4. Death in Marriage
5. Divorce
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X
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Political and Administrative Organisation
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1. Power in the Villages
2. The Muhtar
3. The Council of Elders
4. Funds and Contributions
5. Other Village Functionaries
6. Direct Relations with Government
7. Political Parties
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1. Agriculture
2. Tenure and Distribution
3. Inheritance and Impoverishment
4. Daughters’ Inheritance of Land
5. Share-cropping and Ownership
6. Income from Farming
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XII
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Occupation and Services
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1. Alternative Occupations within the Village
2. Services
3. External Occupations - Migrant Labour
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1. Economic Organisation of Households
2. Debt
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1. The Problem
2. Beliefs and Rituals
3. Religious Education
4. Religious Practice
5. Women
6. Religion and the Social Order
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7. Morals
8. Theology and Metaphysics
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1. Social Change
2. Economic Changes
3. Political Changes
4. Family and Kinship
5. Cultural Contact
6. Conclusion
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1. Social Structure
2. Social Units
3. Social Groups
4. Stratification
5. Men and Women
6. Other Relations
7. Conclusion
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Appendix
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‘A’ Turkish Language
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‘B’ Kinship Terms
‘C’ Village Households by Kabile
‘D’ Glossary of Turkish Words
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Select Bibliography
MAP 1 - TURKEY
MAP 2 - AREA MAP
MAP 3 - ROUGH DIAGRAM OF VILLAGE
PREFACE
The thesis here presented consists of a report on field work in a Turkish
village. Although I and my wife went to Turkey in April 1949, I was
prevented by personal practical difficulties from beginning field work until
the 1st November, 1949. I remained in the village, where I was joined by my
wife in the spring of 1950, until the end of August, but of that period, one
month was spent in sickness, and another in a visit to Ankara and Istanbul
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